URENA


                                      URENA
           This is a bast fiber that comes from the plant Urena Lobata.

            
                                         Urena
The leaves and flowers are also a famine food in Africa.
Production and Processing:-
The urena plant is a perennial (means grown once in year), with stalks that grow to a height of 3m (10 ft).
 After harvesting, the stalks are retted like jute in ponds or slow streams for 1 - 2 weeks. The fibres are stripped from the retted stalks by hand and washed to remove unwanted material.
Structure and Properties:-
Urena has an attractive handle and appearance. It is near-white when carefully retted, and is soft to the touch. It has a natural lustre.
The fiber has strength similar to that of jute.
Strands of commercial urena are often 1.2m (4 ft) long.
Individual cells of urena are  generally less than 2.6mm (1/10th in) long. The lumen as in the kenaf cell is usually irreragular.
Urena in Use:-
1-    Unera is made into yarn and fabrics similar to those that are made from jute.
2-    Much of it is used for sacking. 

Sunn



                                  SUNN
The plant Crotalaria juncea has been grown in India and Pakistan since prehistoric times. It is a source of the bast fiber known as sunn.
Production and Processing:-
It grows to the height of 3m ( 10 ft), with stalks nearly 2.5cm (1 in) thick.
 It is cultivated and harvested in India and Bangladash in a manner similar to jute. In 1976, the world production of sunn amounted to about 6,000 tonnes.

Structure and Properties:-
Sunn is a light coloured fiber when carefully prepared. It has a fine luster.
Sunn fiber is almost strong as hemp, and its strenght is greater when wet.
Strands of commerical sunn are some 150cm (5 ft ) long and consist of many individual fibers held together by natural gums.
Individual cells are about 8.5mm ( 1/3 in)long.The cells of sunn fibers are cylinderical, and are marked here and there by joints. The lumen is not so regular as it is in flax, as it is often filled with a yellow substance. Towards the end of the fiber cell, the lumen disappears. The end of the cell are blunt and rounded.
Seen in the cross section, the cells of sunn fiber are oval. There is a comparatively thick coating of lignin surrounding each cell.

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                                            Sunn
Sunn in Use:-
1- Sunn fiber is used for cordage and paper manufacture.
2- It is made into sacking, carpet and rug material.
3-  It has a good resistance to moisture and micro-organisms. It become strong in wet condition and made the fiber particularly useful for fishing nets.


Basic Textile Termenologies


Tensile properties
Tensile properties indicates how a material will react to the forces being applied in Tension. Some tensile properties are given below -
Tenacity
Tenacity is the maximum strength to break a fibre.
Breaking extension
It is expressed in percentage. It is the ratio of elongation at break to the initial length and multiple of hundred.
Work of rupture
The total energy needed or work done to break a fibre.
Initial modulus
Initial modulus is the stress needed to double the length of a fibre.
Yield stress
Yield stress is the stress for which the fibre or material starts yielding.
Work factor
It is the ratio of work of rupture to the product of breaking load and breaking extension.
Elastic recovery
The tendency of a fibre to recover its original size and shape. It is the ratio of elastic extension to total extension.

Flexural properties
It is the property or behaviour shown by the fibre or material when we bend it. The importance of Flexural properties is required when we wear cloth.

Torsional properties
It is the property of fibre or material when a Torsional force is applied on it. Here Torsional force is a twisting force that is applied on the two ends of the material in two opposite direction.

Frictional properties
Frictional properties is due to the friction between the fibres. This properties are shown during processing. Too high friction and too low friction is not good for yarn. Therefore it is an important property when yarn manufacturing and processing.

SISAL


                                   SISAL
This is a leaf-fibre that comes from the plant Agave sisalana, which is indigenous to Central America.
 It derives its name from the Yucatan port of Sisal on the Gulf of Mexico.
The sisal plant is now cultivated widely in East Africa, Mexico, Haiti, Brazil and in other regions of South America. The world output (1978) is in the region of 550,000 tonnes.


        Baled Brazilian sisal fiber





                    Sisal
Production and Processing:-
Sisal plants send up huge leaves almost from ground level. The leaves are firm and fleshy, and form a rosette (a design or object resembling a rose) on a short trunk (the main woody stem of a tree).
After six or seven years of growth, the sisal plant sends out a flower stalk that rises to some 6m (20 ft). When it has flowered, the plant produces tiny buds which develop into small plants. These fall to the ground and take root, and the parent plant dies.
Leaves are harvested when the plants are 2 1/2 to 4 years old and at intervals until the plant eventually die.
A good plant may yield 400 leaves during its lifetime, and each leaf may contain up to 1,000 fibres. The outer mature leaves are cut away and treated in machines which scrapie the pulpy material from the fibres. After washing, the fibre is dried and bleached in the sun, or oven-dried.
Dyeing:-
Sisal has a good affinity for direct cotton and acid dyestuffs, which provide attractive shades of good light fastness.
Direct dyestuffs are used in the same way as in the dyeing of cotton. Acid dyes are applied from a neutral or acid dyebath.
Basic dyes are commonly used for dyeing sisal which is used in ropes. They have poor light fastness and are less satisfactory than direct or acid dyes when the sisal is used for matting.
Structure and Properties:-
Strands of commercial sisal are 60 - 120cm (2-4 ft) in length. They are strong and consist of many individual fibres held together by natural gums. If processing has been carried out carefully, the sisal is creamy-white in colour.
Sisal fibre tends to be stiff and rather inflexible. It absorbs moisture readily and is weakened by being steeped for long periods in salt water.
There are a number of different types of cell in a typical specimen
of sisal. The 'normal' fibre cells are straight and stiff; they are
cylindrical and often striated. The average length is about 2.5mm
(l/10th in).
These fibres sometimes appear saw-edged and have
tapering ends.
 The lumen varies in thickness and definition; the cell
walls arc thick where the lumen is thin and vice versa. The lumen is
often packed with tiny granules.      
Sisal also contains broader fibres with a characteristic lattice pattern and with small pore-markings. Some cells are cushion-shaped and others are short and rectangular. Here and there, small spiral-shaped bodies can be seen, like little springs.
Sisal contains about 6 per cent of lignin (based on dry material).
                  
                          Sisal
                  PROPERTIES
Physical Properties:-
Denier            9-406                              Tenacity             3.8g/dtex
Moisture Regain       11%                     Extension           1.9%
Length              40-100mm
Chemical Properties:-
Cellulose                           65.8%
Pectin                                0.8
Fat and Waxes                  0.3%
Water Soluble                   1.2
Sisal in Use:-
1-          Sisal is one of the most valuable of all cordage fibres.
2-          It is too stiff to be used satisfactorily for certain purposes, such as power trans­mission, in which it has to run through pulleys or over wheels
3-          Sisal is now widely used for marine ropes and hawsers particularly in under-developed areas.
4-          Sisal is used extensively for making baler and binder twine, and for sacks, paper filters and other industrial uses.
5-          The high strength, lustre and good colour of sisal have made it into an attractive fibre for certain textile uses.
6-           It is made into matting and rugs.
7-           Its ability to take up direct cotton and acid dye-stuffs has made it a popular fibre for ladies' hats.



Ramie


                                     RAMIE
Egyptian mummies of the pre-dynastic period (5000-3300 n.c.) were wrapped in fabric that has been identified as the bast fibre we now call ramie or China grass.
Botanical Information:-
This fibre comes from plants Boehmeria nivea or Boehmeria tenacissema.


                     
                                                  Ramie


Production and Processing:-
The ramie is a perennial, sending  up many stalks to a height of 1.2-2m (4-6ft). The plants are hardly and grow well in warm climates. They are harvested when the lower stalks turn yellow and the new stalks are beginning to make their appearance.
Decortication:-
The ramie fibers are removed from the stalks by the process of decortications. This is usually out by hand. The process consist in peeling or beating the bark and bast material from the stalks soon after harvesting. The fibers are freed by soaking the bar in water and scraping with knives made from shells, bronze or iron.
The long strands of ramie fibre are then dried and bleached in the sun.
The decortication process varies in detail in different regions. Sometimes the stalks are beaten against rocks before being peeled; the bark is battered with wooden .mallets to free the fibre from adhering woody matter. In Indonesia the" stalks are scraped in such a way as to leave the bast fibres clinging to the woody cores. These are then washed and the fibres are peeled away in the form of long ribbon-like strands.
Degumming:-
Before the ramie fiber can be spun, they must be released from the ribbons or strands in which they are held together by natural gum.
There are many degumming processes in use in different parts of the world. Where fiber production is carried out simply and by hand, the gums are removed by repeated soaking and scraping.
Soda or lime be used if these are available.
Commercial degumming is usually carried out by treating the fibers with caustic soda solution ( less then 1% ) for as long as four hours. The fibers are then treated with bleaching powder, followed by immersion in a bath of dilute acid. The bleaching and acid steeping are repeated until all the gum has been removed. Then the fiber is washed, oiled and dried.


Dyeing:-
Ramie can be dyed with all the classes of dyestuffs used for cotton, including direct, sulphur, basic, azoic and vat dyes. The techniques used are similar and the results are good. Dyeing is level and the fastness to light and washing is comparable with that of the same dyestuffs on cotton.
Structure and Properties:-
Ramie fibre is white and lustrous. Ramie yarns may be as strong as flax line yarns. The fibre is durable but lacks elasticity.
Ramie absorbs water readily. Fabrics made from it will launder easily and dry quickly. They can be dyed readily.
Ramie yarn tends to have a hairy feel, due to the stiffness and coarseness of the fibres, which reduces their cohesion.
The cells of ramie fibre often  45cm (18 in) more than 150 cm (59) long. They are smooth and cylindrical, with thick walls. The surface of the cell is marked by little ridges.
The lumen narrows and disappears towards the ends of the ramie cell, which tapers to a rounded point.
                      
       Ramie
Denier of rami fiber is 4.6-6.4. They are hexagonal and oval in shape.
Physical Properties:-
Specific Gravity    1.51-1.55
Tenacity                6.1g/dtex
Extension               3.8%
Chemical Properties:-
Cellulose                   68.6%
Pectin                         1.9%
Water Soluble         5.5%
Others                        16.4%
Ramie in Use:-
1-    Ramie is made into many types of industrial fabrics, such as canvas and packing materials.
2-    It is an increasing use in upholstery and furnishing and in cloth.
3-    Ramie yarns are used for fishing nets and sewing threads.
4-    The lack of cohesion between ramie fibers and the consequent hairiness of ramie yarn makes it difficult to weave ramie into a smooth fabric. Much of luster lost when it is made into cloth.
This draw back is overcome by mercerization process similar to that used for cotton.
5-    Ramie yarns are maintained under tension and treated with caustic soda. This brings about chemical and physical changes similar to those that take place in cotton.

Kenaf


                                       KENAF
Kenaf is one of the allied fibres of jute and shows similar characteristics.
In Africa kenaf has long been used as a source of fiber for making cordage and coarse fabrics.
Most of the world’s Kenaf is grown in India, Bangladesh and Thailand.
Botanical Information:-
The botanical name of Kenaf plant is Hibiscus.


                
                                    Kenaf                                                              
Production and Processing:-

The kenaf plant is an annual, with 12mm (1/2 in) diameter stalks that reach 3m (10 ft) in height. It grows well in the hot damp climate tropical countries.
The fibres in kenaf is found in the bast (bark) and core (wood). The bast constitute of 40 % of the plant.
 The methods used for harvesting and processing kenaf are similar to those used for jute. The stalks are retted and then beaten to free the fibre from unwanted material.
Structure and Properties:-
Kenaf is a pale-coloured fibre which contains less non-cellulosic material than jute. It has the lustre which is characteristic of many bast fibres.
Kenaf has a breaking strength similar, to that of low-grade jute, and it is weakened only slightly when wet.
The cells of kenaf are short, reaching only 6mm (1/4 in) in length. They are cylindrical and the surface is striated and irregular. The lumen varies greatly in thickness at different points in the cell, sometimes disappearing altogether.


                     
                              Dried Kenaf Stems

Seen in cross-section, the cell of kenaf fibre is polygonal and has a thick wall. It is coated with a layer of lignin. The fibre ends are thick and blunt(means Lacking sharp edges or point).
KENAF in USE:-
1-  Most of the kenaf produced at present is used for making ropes and twines.
2-  For coarse fabrics it is used for making canvas and sacking.
3-   Some of the better quality fibre is made into carpet mater.



Jute


                                                                                 Jute
Jute is a long, shiny, vegetable fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong thread.
Jute is one of the most affordable natural fibers. Industrial term for jute fiber is raw jute.
Botanical information:-
The botanical name of jute is corchorus.
Cultivation:-
Jute needs plain olluvial soil and standing water. The suitable climate for jute   (warm and wet climate) is offered by the monsoon climate during the monsoon season. Temperature from 20-40 and relative humidity means (water vapors in air) of 70-80% are favorable for successful cultivation. Jute requires 5-8cm rainfall weekly and more during the sowing period.
                                                                                                                             Jute plants (Corchorus olitorius andCorchorus capsularis)
                                   Production and Processing
Jute is a rain fed crop with little need for fertilizer or pesticides. It may grow to 5m (15ft), with a stalk diameter of 20mm (3/4in). The production is concentrated mainly in Bangladesh and some India.
 Jute fibers come from the stem and ribbon (outer skin) of the jute plant. Fibers are extracted by retting. This process consists of bundling jute stem together and immersing them in low running water. They are examed daily until the stage is reached at which fiber can be separated easily from the stem. The strands of fiber, often as much as 2m (7ft) long, are washed and hung up in the sun for dry. They are compressed into bales and sent off to the mills for spinning.
  It is necessary to include small amount of mineral spindle oils into fiber during conversion into yarn. Normal jute goods may contain up to (5%) oil called stainless. Yarn containing (1%) oil or less are commonly available when jute  use for special purpose; e.g. carpet backing, wall covering, etc.
                                       
Picture of cutting lower part of the long jute fibre. The lower part is hard fibre, which is called jute cuttings in Bangladesh and India (commonly called jute butts or jute tops elsewhere). Jute cuttings are lower in quality, but have commercial value for the paper, carded yarn, and other fibre processing industries. Jute fibres are kept in bundles in the background in a warehouse in Bangladesh.                                                 
                                   Structure and Properties
Fiber Structure and Appearance:-
Jute varies from yellow to brown and brown to dirty grey in color with 1-4meter (3-12ft) long.
 Jute has a natural silky luster.
Jute fiber composed primarily of the plant material cellulose (major component of plant fiber) and lignin (major component of wool fiber). It is thus a lingo-cellulosic fiber that is partially a textile fiber and partially wood.
Best quality oh jute is smooth and soft. The individual cells of jute are about 2.6mm (1/10th in) long, on average. The fibers are coated with a layer of woody material.
Seen in cross-section, the cell is polygonal with Den:-13-27 usually with five or six bends. It has thick walls and a broad lumen of oval cross-section. By contrast with the regular lumen of flax jute is irregular. Towards the ends of the cell, which are tapered, the lumen widens; the cell walls become correspondingly thin. Jute contains about 20% of lignin.

                                                
                                                Jute Fabric


                       
                                          
                                                      Properties
Tensile Strength:-
 Jute is not so strong as flax or hemp, nor it is so durable. Individual fiber varies greatly in strength owing to the irregularities in the thickness of cell wall.
Elongation:-
  Jute has an elongation at break of about 1.7%.
Elastic Property:-
 Jute tends to be a stiff fiber which is due to the cell which is cements together in the material.
Specific Gravity:-
                         1.5

Effect of Moisture:-
 Jute is an unusually hygroscopic fiber. Its regain figure is 13.75%. It can absorb as much as 23% of water under humid conditions.

Effect of Age:-
 If kept dry, jute will last indefinitely although the high content of non-cellulosic matter tends to make it sensitive to chemical and photochemical attack. Moisture loses strength of jute with age.
Chemical Properties:-
                       Cellulose=64.4%                                pectin=0.2%
                      Fat and wax=0.5%                              others=23.8%
                         Water soluble=3.9%
Micro-organisms:-
 Jute has more resistance to decompose than either grey cotton or flax  (i. e unclean). If tightly scoured (scoured means clean by rubbing with something rough or detergent) it can have an excellent resistance owing to have the protective effect of the lignin.
Jute in Use:-
1= Jute is cheap and reasonable strong. These characteristics have enable it to become an important fiber for sacks and packing cloths. These are used extensively for the storage and transport of agriculture product.
2= Resistance of a jute fiber to stretching forces has proved a valuable property when jute is used for storage and transport purpose. Sacks and bales remain firmly in place after stacking; they do not distort and shift position as they would if made from a fiber more elastic than jute.
3= Hairiness of jute can be a disadvantage when jute sacks are used for food storage. The fiber end may break away and contaminate the food.
4=the finer quality of jute are made into curtains and furnishing fabrics. After treatment with caustic soda jute mixes with wool and spun and woven into cheap fabrics.

5=Familiar uses for jute include the following;
Sacks, bags, baling and bundle cloths, bedding foundation, bonded fabric, cargo and other separation cloths (e.g in rubber technology), cattle bedding, concrete cleavage fabrics, cables, plastics reinforcement, filter cloths, fire curtains, fuse yarns, furnishing, hand bag and all type of stiff bags. 

Humidification


Humidification is the artificial regulation of humidity in home environments, industrial environments, and health care applications such as artificial respiration.
To be comfortable, people require a certain amount of ambient humidity -- not too high, and not too low. Adequate humidification in a manufacturing environment stabilizes moisture in wood, paper, and textiles, while preventing warping in glue joints.
In all environments, humidification reduces fire risk and static electricity while making the area feel comfortable.

Humidification is achieved using liquid atomisers which distribute moisture to the area, coupled with accurate sensors which measure ambient humidity.

In humidification, two quantities are commonly used.
 Absolute humidification:
        Absolute humidification is expressed in grams of moisture per cubic volume of air.
Relative humidification:
        Relative humidification is expressed as a ratio between the amount of moisture currently in the air and the maximum moisture the air could hold before condensation occurs.
 Many humidifiers are cheap and require little maintenance. In industrial settings, they are often hung from the ceiling among duct work. Humidification is intimately tied to heating and cooling systems. The level of humidity in the air is also a function of the temperature. Therefore, humidity control systems are often integrated with cooling systems.
Humidification systems are designed by mechanical engineers and are also linked to ventilation systems. Given adequate ventilation from the outside, the humidity of an indoor environment will tend to reach equilibrium with the humidity outside. Humidification is also used to "relax" old documents that have become wrinkled with age.
IMPORTANCE OF RH AND TEMPERATURE:
The atmospheric conditions with respect to temperature and humidity play very important part in the manufacutring process of textile yarns and fabrics.
The properties like dimensions, weight, tensile strength, elastic recovery, electrical resistance, rigidity etc. of all textile fibre whether natural or synthetic are influenced by Moisture Regain.
Moisture regain:
Moisture regain is the ratio of the moisture to the bone-dry weight of the material expressed as a percentage.

Many properties of textile materials vary considerably with moisture regain, which in turn is affected by the ambient Relative Humidity (RH) and Temparature. If a dry textile material is placed in a room with a particualr set of ambient conditions, it absorbs moisture and in course of time, attains an equilibrium.
Some physical properties of textile materials which is affected by RH is given below:
·         Strength of COTTON goes up when R.H.% goes up
·         Strength of VISCOSE goes down when R.H.% goes up
·         Elongation %ge goes up with increased R.H.% for most textile fibres
·         the tendency for generation of static electricity due to friction decreases as RH goes up
·         At higher levels of RH , there is also a tendency of the fibres to stick together
Temparature alone does not have a great effect on the fibres. However the temperature dictates the amount
of moisture the air will hold in suspension and , therefore, temperature and humidity must be considered together.